History of Japan

he Kanayama Castle Ruins are located in Ota City, Gunma Prefecture(Google Map).

Kanayama Castle was built in 1469 by Iwamatsu Iezumi(岩松家純), and later became the castle of the Yura clan(由良氏).

Kanayama Castle was repeatedly attacked by warlords such as Uesugi Kenshin of Echigo (present-day Niigata Prefecture) and Takeda Katsuyori of Kai (present-day Yamanashi Prefecture), but it was never taken.

In 1584, Kanayama Castle was surrendered to the Hōjō clan of Sagami (present-day Kanagawa Prefecture), and after that, in 1590, it was abandoned when the Hōjō clan was defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.

West-Yaguradai West-Horikiri(西矢倉台西堀切) (“Horikiri”(堀切) is a moat that cuts across a ridge to prevent the enemy from advancing to the flat ground at the end).

Ote-Koguchi (“Koguchi” (虎口)is the entrance to a castle. It is narrow and has a gate to limit the number of people who can pass through, preventing the enemy from entering. This Koguchi is a defensive stronghold that guarded the passageway leading to the main keep. The high stone wall was said to intimidate the enemy and show the dignity of the castle)

Hinoike (It is thought that ceremonies such as victory celebrations and rain-making ceremonies were held here)

1.The Rise of the Fujiwara Family and Prince Nagaya Incident(藤原氏の台頭と長屋王の変)

At the beginning of the 8th century, the power of the royal family and the leading aristocrats in the capital was relatively balanced, but eventually the influence of the powerful old families such as the Ōtomo(大伴) and Saeki(佐伯) family declined, and the Fujiwara family made its way onto the political stage. Fujiwara no Fuhito(藤原不比等) played an important role in establishing the Ritsuryō system, and he established close ties with the royal family by marrying his daughter Miyako(宮子) to Emperor Monmu(文武天皇), and then by marrying his son’s daughter, Kōmyōshi（光明子） to the crown prince (later Emperor Shōmu(聖武天皇)).

After Fuhito’s death, a member of the royal family, Prince Nagaya(長屋王) took control of the government as Minister of the Right(右大臣), but Fuhito’s four sons (Muchimaro(武智麻呂), Fusasaki(房前), Umakai(宇合), and Maro(麻呂), the so-called Four Fujiwara Sons(藤原四兄弟)) accused Prince Nagaya of treason and forced him to commit suicide (Prince Nagaya Incident of 729), and succeeded in making Kōmyōshi the empress.

2.The spread of smallpox and the decline of the Fujiwara family(天然痘の流行と藤原氏の衰退)

Four Fujiwara Sons subsequently took control of the government, but in 737, all four of them died of smallpox(天然痘) one after another, and the power of the Fujiwara family temporarily weakened. As a result, Tachibana no Moroe(橘諸兄) led the Grand Council of State(太政官), and he stabilized the government by appointing Kibi no Makibi(吉備真備), who had studied in Tang China, and the priest Genbō(玄昉).

Fujiwara no Hirotsugu(藤原広嗣), a relative of Four Fujiwara Sons who was dissatisfied with this situation, led a rebellion in Kyūshū in 740 to remove Kibi no Makibi and Genbō, but it ended in failure (Fujiwara Hirotsugu Rebellion(藤原広嗣の乱)).

3. Emperor Shomu and the concept of Chingo Kokka(聖武天皇と鎮護国家の思想)

Amidst this political instability, the spread of disease, and continuing social unrest such as famine, Emperor Shōmu strengthened the concept of Chingo Kokka(鎮護国家), which sought to stabilize the nation through the power of Buddhism.

In 741, Emperor Shōmu issued the Kokubunji Konryū no Mikotonori(Edict for Establishing Provincial Temples 国分寺建立の詔) to build Kokubunji(provincial temples 国分寺) and Kokubunniji(provincial nunneries 国分尼寺) temples throughout the country, and Todaiji(東大寺) in Nara was designated as the central temple.

In 743, Emperor Shōmu issued the Daibutsu Zōryū no Mikotonori(Edict for Building a Great Statue of the Buddha 大仏造立の詔) at Shigaraki Palace(紫香楽宮) and construction of the Rushanabutsu (the Great Statue of the Buddha of Todaiji 盧舎那仏) began. The construction of the Great Statue of the Buddha was carried out with the cooperation of Gyōki(行基) and many other believers, but as the capital was moved several times, when the capital was moved back to Heijōkyō in 745, the construction of the Great Statue of the Buddha was also moved to Nara.

In 752, during the reign of Empress Kōken(孝謙天皇), the Great Buddha of Todaiji was consecrated, and this series of projects came to symbolize the promotion of Buddhism on a national scale.

However, these large-scale projects ultimately exhausted the people and placed a heavy burden on the finances and lives of the people.

4.The Rise of Fujiwara no Nakamaro and the Importance of Dōkyō(藤原仲麻呂の台頭と道鏡の重用)

The Fujiwara family regained its political influence during this period. Fujiwara no Nakamaro(藤原仲麻呂) (Emi no Oshikatsu(恵美押勝)), the grandson of Fujiwara no Fuhito(藤原不比等), strengthened national governance through the enforcement of the Yōrō Ritsuryō in 757, and consolidated his power base while cooperating with Empress Kōken.

However, against the tyranny of Nakamaro, Tachibana no Naramaro(橘奈良麻呂), the son of Tachibana no Moroe, rebelled and plotted to remove Nakamaro (Tachibana no Naramaro Incident(橘奈良麻呂の変)). This plot failed and Naramaro’s power was destroyed.

When Empress Kōken abdicated and became Retired Empress Kōken(孝謙上皇) a conflict arose between her and Nakamaro. Retired Empress Kōken placed importance on the monk Dōkyō(道教), and this led to a deepening of the conflict between Nakamaro and the newly enthroned Emperor Junnin(淳仁天皇). In 764, Nakamaro attempted to resolve the conflict by force, but this failed (the Emi no Oshikatsu Rebellion), and he was killed, while Emperor Junin was exiled to Awaji Island.

Retired Empress Kōken was enthroned again as Emperor Shōtoku(称徳天皇), and appointed Dōkyō as Dajōdaijin Zenji(supreme minister and mediation master　太政大臣禅師), and then as Hō-ō(dharma king 法王), and developed a political system centered on Buddhism.

However, in 769, when Dōkyō showed signs of using the oracle of Usa Shrine(宇佐神宮) to aim for the imperial throne, his plan was stopped by the opposition of Wake no Kiyomaro(和気清麻呂) and others.

After the death of Empress Shōtoku, Dōkyō was demoted, and Emperor Kōnin(光仁天皇), a member of the Tenji Emperor(天智天皇) lineage, ascended the throne, bringing an end to the imperial lineage of the Emperor Temmu(天武天皇).

5.Change in Land Policy and Formation of the Shōen(土地政策の転換と荘園制の形成)

During this period, the Ritsuryō system also underwent a major change in land policy.

In 723, the Sanze Isshin Law(三世一身法) was enacted, which allowed private ownership of land with newly developed irrigation facilities for up to three generations, but as this had limited effect, in 743 the Konden Einen Shizai Law(墾田永年私財法) was enacted. This law allowed the permanent private ownership of cultivated land, and as a result temples, nobles and local warlords mobilized farmers to carry out large-scale cultivation, and the amount of privately owned land increased rapidly. These private lands were called “early Shōen（初期荘園）” and laid the foundations for the Shōen system(荘園制) that was to come.

On the other hand, the burden on the farmers became heavier, and there was an increase in the number of people who left the land registered in their family registers and became vagrants, and in the number of people who abandoned tax payments and fled. Some of these farmers came under the control of local warlords and temples and were used as labor.

6. The accession of Emperor Kōnin and the reconstruction of the Ritsuryō state(光仁天皇の即位と律令国家の再建)

After the death of Emperor Shōtoku, Emperor Kōnin ascended the throne and sought to rebuild the Ritsuryō political system, and efforts were made to rebuild the national governance system, which was in decline. The chaos of this period, while showing the limitations of the Ritsuryō state, also became an opportunity to create elements that would have an impact on later generations, such as the development of the manor system and the rise of Buddhism.

1.The influence of the Tang Dynasty and the formation of the Ritsuryō state in Japan(唐の影響と日本の律令国家形成)

The Tang Dynasty(唐) ruled over a vast territory and prospered as a center of international cultural exchange. Its capital, Chang’an(長安) (present-day Xi’an(西安)), was a city where a global culture flourished based on exchanges with many different countries, including those in West Asia, and it had an influence on the whole of East Asia. The Tang Dynasty spread its system of rule and culture to the surrounding countries, and an East Asian cultural sphere centered on Confucianism(儒教), Chinese characters(漢字) and Buddhism was formed.

Japan established a centralized system following the implementation of the Taihō Ritsuryō, and in 702, it sent Kentōshi envoys(遣唐使)(envoys to Tang) for the first time since 669. This envoy sent students and learned monks to Tang to study Tang law and systems, and they brought back a huge amount of books and cultural artifacts, promoting Japan’s cultural development.

Abe no Nakamaro(阿倍仲麻呂) became a high-ranking official in Tang, and became a cultural bridge between Japan and China, interacting with the poets Li Bai(李白) and Wang Wei(王維), but he never returned to Japan and ended his life in Tang.

2.The transfer of the capital to Heijō-kyō(平城京への遷都)

In 710, Empress Genmei(元明天皇) transferred the capital from Fujiwara-kyō(藤原京) to Heijō-kyō(平城京) in Nara. The period from this point until the transfer of the capital to Nagaoka-kyō(長岡京) and Heian-kyō(平安京) in Yamashiro Province(山背国) is known as the Nara period(奈良時代).

The urban planning and architectural techniques of Chang’an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty, which were brought to Japan by Kentōshi envoys, were reflected in the construction of Heijō-kyō. Heijō-kyō was laid out in a grid pattern, similar to Chang’an, and was divided into the left capital(左京)and right capital(右京), with Suzaku Avenue(朱雀大路) at the center. The central government offices and the imperial palace were built in Heijō-kyō, and it functioned as the center of state administration.

In Heijō-kyō, large temples such as Kōfukuji(興福寺) and Tōdaiji(東大寺) were built, and Buddhist culture developed further. In addition, temples from Asuka(飛鳥) and Fujiwara-kyō such as Yakushiji(薬師寺), Daianji(大安寺) and Gangyōji(元興寺) were relocated, and the concentration of culture around Heijō-kyō progressed. As a result, Heijō-kyō became the religious and cultural center of the Nara period.

3.Local Governance of the Ritsuryō State(律令国家の地方統治)

Japan’s Ritsuryō state adopted the Sinocentrism(中華思想) and positioned itself as the center of the world. At the same time, it also adopted the idea of regarding people from surrounding cultures as barbarians. This ideology was reflected in the policy of subjugating the Emishi (蝦夷)of the Tōhoku region and the Hayato(隼人) of southern Kyūshū.

In the Tohoku region, Mutsu Province(陸奥国) was divided to create Dewa Province(出羽国), and Taga Fort（多賀城） and Akita Fort(秋田城) were built as bases for dealing with the Emishi. These forts were established with military government offices, and military pressure on the Emishi was strengthened.

The policy towards the Emishi was two-pronged: on the one hand, those Emishi who submitted were given preferential treatment, while on the other hand, those who resisted were suppressed by military force. In addition, the development of the areas under control was also promoted, such as by relocating people from the Kanto region to the areas around the fort.

In southern Kyushu, the provinces of Satsuma(薩摩) and Osumi(大隅) were established at the beginning of the 8th century, and a policy of bringing the Hayato people under control was pursued. In addition, remote islands such as Tanegashima(種子島) and Yakushima(屋久島) were brought under control at this time.

4.Diplomatic relations with Tang, Silla and Balhae(唐、新羅、渤海との外交関係)

The Ritsuryō state introduced many systems and cultures through its interactions with the Tang dynasty, but it was not incorporated into the Tang’s system of tribute(冊封体制). Although Japan formally insisted on equal diplomatic relations, in reality it acted as a tributary state, and it sought to develop its own country by accepting many goods and cultures.

In its relationship with Silla(新羅) on the Korean Peninsula, Japan tried to treat Silla as a subordinate state, but Silla insisted on equal diplomatic relations, and tensions often arose between the two countries.

Meanwhile, Balhae(渤海), which was established in northeastern China, took a diplomatic stance that saw Japan as a “superior nation”, while at the same time competing with Tang and Silla. From 727 onwards, Japan and Balhae frequently exchanged envoys and built up friendly relations.

5.Summary(まとめ)

The Nara period was a time when Japan, while under the influence of the Tang dynasty, formed its own Ritsuryō state and established a system of centralized rule and local governance. The Nara period saw significant cultural and political progress through urban planning centered on Heijō-kyō, the development of Buddhist culture, and diplomatic relations with the Tang dynasty and surrounding countries.

1.The Taihō Code and the establishment of the Ritsuryō State(大宝律令と律令国家の成立)

In 701, under the reign of Emperor Monmu(文武天皇), the Taihō Code(大宝律令) was completed by Prince Osakabe(刑部親王) and Fujiwara no Fuhito(藤原不比等). Later, Fujiwara no Fuhito took the lead in creating the Yoro Code(養老律令), which was put into effect by Fujiwara no Nakamaro(藤原仲麻呂) in 757.

The term “ritsu(律)” refers to the criminal law, and the term “ryō(令)” refers to the administrative law and general laws. The Taihō Ritsu(大宝律) was largely based on the Tang Ritu（唐律）, but the Taihō Rei(大宝令) was significantly revised to suit the actual situation in Japan.

The establishment and implementation of these codes and laws established the framework of a centralized ritsuryō state, and established the legal foundation for national governance.

In addition, in 702, the Japanese missions to the Tang Dynasty(唐), which had been suspended for about 30 years, were resumed, and the name “Nihon(Japan 日本)” was officially used in reference to the Tang Dynasty.

2.Structure of Central and Local Government(中央・地方行政の構造)

Central government in the Ritsuryō State was composed of two offices: the Daijōkan(太政官), which oversaw all aspects of government, and the Jingikan（神祇官）, which oversaw the rituals of the gods.

Under the Daijōkan, there were eight ministries (Nakatsukasashō(Ministry of Central Affairs中務省), Shikibushō(Ministry of Ceremonies 式部省), Jibushō(Ministry of Civil Administration 治部省),Minbushō(Ministry of Popular Affairs 民部省), Hyōbushō(Ministry of Military Affairs 兵部省), Gyōbushō（Ministry of Justice 刑部省）, Ōkurashō(Ministry of Finance 大蔵省), and Kunaisyō(Ministry of the Imperial Household 宮内省) that shared responsibility for government affairs and were responsible for the management of the state.

Important government policies were implemented after being discussed and approved by the Dajōdaizin(supreme minister 太政大臣), the Sadaijin(minister of the left 左大臣), the Udaijin(minister of the right,右大臣), and the Dainagon(senior counselors 大納言), and then receiving the Emperor’s permission. In addition, the Danjōdai (an inspection agency 弾正台) and the Goeifu (a military police agency 五衛府) were established independently of the control of the two ministries and eight ministries.

Local administration was divided into the Kinai(畿内) region (Yamato, Kawachi, Settsu, Yamashiro, and later Izumi(大和,河内,摂津,山背,後の和泉) and the Shichido(七道)(Touzando, Toukaido, Hokurikudou, Sanindou, Sanyoudou, Nankaidou, and Saikaidou(東山道,東海道,北陸道,山陰道,山陽道,南海道,西海道), and the whole country was further divided into koku(province 国),gun(district 郡),ri（township 里）.

Kokushi(国司): A nobleman dispatched from the capital was appointed and administered the government at the kokufu (provincial governor’s office 国府).
Gunji(郡司): Local clan leaders were appointed to administer affairs at the guuke 郡家).
Richō(里長): Prominent farmers were appointed to oversee village administration.
In Kyushu, the Dazaifu(大宰府) was established and was known as the “distant imperial court(遠の朝廷)”, playing an important role as a strategic location for diplomacy and military affairs. In the capital, the Sakyōshiki(左京職) and the Ukyōshiki(右京職)(left and right administrative offices) were established, and in Naniwa(難波), the Settsushiki(摂津職) administrative office was established.

3.The bureaucratic and class systems(官僚制度と身分制度)

Bureaucratic positions were allocated according to the four-tiered official system (kami（長官）,suke(次官),jou(判官),sakan(主典)), and Kanisōtōsei(a system of official ranks 官位相当制) was introduced, whereby officials were appointed to positions according to their rank. Officials were promoted based on their performance evaluations, and they were paid fuko(residence units 封戸), denchi(rice fields 田地), and roku（goods 禄）according to their rank and official position. However, there was a large gap in the treatment of senior and junior officials, and many senior officials were from influential clans in the Kinai region. In addition, under the Oni no sei(蔭位の制), the descendants of officials of the fifth rank and above were given preferential treatment in terms of promotion, and the system was set up so that privileged positions were inherited.

The class system was broadly divided into two categories: ryōmin(upper class 良民) and senmin(lower class 賤民). senmin people were further divided into those who were owned by the government (ryōto (the imperial tomb guards 陵戸), kanto(government servants 官戸), and kunuhi(government slaves 公奴婢) and those who were owned by private individuals (kenin(clan servants 家人)and shinuhi(private slaves 私奴婢), and were known as the “Goshiki no Sen(five-colored lowly people 五色の賤)”. Marriages between ryōmin people and senmin people were forbidden, and the social class differences were fixed.

4. Taxation and Labor(税制と労役)

In the Ritsuryō State, a family registry was created every six years, and the people were organized into ko (not family units, but administrative units 戸). Every 50 ko made up a ri(里), and the Handen Shūju law (field allotment system) was applied there. Ryōmin（良民）men over the age of six were given 2 tan(段) of rice fields, women were given two-thirds of that, and nuhi(slaves 奴婢) were given one-third of that.

The following types of taxation were in place:

So (tax on crops 租): 3% of the harvest was paid in rice.
Chō (tax on goods 調): silk, cloth and local produce were paid in kind.
You (tax on labor 庸): cloth was paid in lieu of labor.
Zōyou (forced labor 雑徭): up to 60 days of labor per year was imposed.

In addition, under the military service system, one person in every three or four ko(戸) was conscripted as a soldier and assigned to duties as a guard or sakimori(a border guard 防人). The principle was that people were responsible for their own weapons and food, and military service and forced labor placed a heavy burden on the people.

5.Economy and Money(経済と貨幣)

The state lent rice in the spring and summer, and in the autumn it collected 50% interest along with the rice (this system is called suiko(出挙) or kusuiko(公出挙) ), and used this as a source of revenue. The Wadōkaichin (和同開珎)coin was issued as currency, but its circulation was limited to the capital and the area around the provincial capital, and it did not become widely used. In the countryside, cloth and rice continued to be used as currency.

6.Summary(まとめ)

The establishment of the Taiho Code and the formation of the Ritsuryō State created a centralized national system and became an important turning point in Japanese history. However, the fixed class system, excessive tax burden, and compulsory labor duties placed a heavy burden on the people, and these factors also led to the later collapse of the Ritsuryō system.

1. The establishment of the Tang Dynasty and tensions in East Asia(唐の成立と東アジアの緊張)

At the beginning of the 7th century, the Sui Dynasty(隋) fell in China and the Tang Dynasty(唐) was established in its place. The Tang Dynasty built a powerful centralized state based on the Ritsuryo system, and actively expanded into Central Asia and the Korean Peninsula. In response to the growing military tensions in East Asia as a whole, the three Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo(高句麗), Baekje(百済) and Silla(新羅) also strengthened their own national systems and hurried to increase their national power.

This movement also had an impact on Japan, which was separated from these countries by the sea, and the need for a centralized state was called for.

In order to learn about the advanced governance system and culture of the Tang Dynasty, students and monks such as Takamuko no Genri(高向玄理) and Min(旻) were sent to China, and after returning to Japan, they played a role in spreading the knowledge of reform.

2.The Soga Family’s Tyranny and the Isshi Incident(蘇我氏の専横と乙巳の変)

However, the Soga family（蘇我氏） still held great power within the country, and in particular, Soga no Emishi(蘇我蝦夷) and his son Soga no Iruka(蘇我入鹿) were dominating the political scene. In 643, Soga no Iruka killed Prince Yamashiro（山背大兄王）, the son of Prince Umayato(厩戸皇子), in an attempt to further consolidate his power.

Prince Nakanoōe(中大兄皇子) and Nakatomi no Kamatari（中臣鎌足）, who felt threatened by this, aimed to establish a national system centered on the emperor, and in 645 they defeated and destroyed the Soga father and son. This incident is known as the Isshi Incident(乙巳の変) and is positioned as an important political upheaval in Japanese history.

3.Emperor Kotoku and the Taika Reforms(孝徳天皇と大化の改新)

After the Isshi Incident, Empress Kōgyoku(皇極天皇) abdicated in favor of his younger brother, Prince Karu(軽皇子), and Emperor Kotoku(孝徳天皇) was newly enthroned.

Prince Nakanoōe held real power as Crown Prince, and Nakatomi no Kamatari was appointed as an inner court official, and a new political system was put in place. Abe no Uchi no Maro(安倍内麻呂) was appointed as the Minister of the Left(左大臣), and Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawamaro(蘇我倉山田石川麻呂) was appointed as the Minister of the Right(右大臣), and Takamuko no Genri(高向玄理) and Min(旻) were appointed as state doctors.

Furthermore, the capital was moved from Asuka to Naniwa-no-Nagara-Toyosaki-no-Miya(難波長柄豊碕宮) (Naniwa Palace(難波宮)), a strategic location for maritime traffic. Naniwa Palace was built as a base for politics, diplomacy and military affairs to spread the power of the Emperor over a wider area, and it became a forerunner to the later Japanese system of castle towns.

In 646, the “the Reform Edect(改新の詔)”was issued, which clarified the policy of aiming for a centralized national system. The contents were as follows

1. Abolish private land and private citizens belonging to the royal family and powerful families, and introduce a system of public land and citizens.
2. Develop administrative divisions such as the Kinai region(畿内), provinces(国), counties(群) and villages(里).
3. Compile family registers and land registers, and implement the Handen Shūju Law (a system that involved leasing rice fields to men and women aged 6 and over and then collecting the harvested rice).
4. Develop a nationwide uniform tax system.

As you can see, during the reign of Emperor Kotoku, reforms were carried out with the aim of creating a unified nation with the Emperor at its head, and these reforms are known as the Taika Reforms(大化の改新).

4.Empress Saimei and the Battle of Baekgang（斉明天皇と白村江の戦い）

However, this reform came to a temporary halt with the death of Emperor Kotoku. After the death of Emperor Kotoku, Emperor Kogoku was enthroned again (Emperor Saimei(斉明天皇)), and Prince Nakanoōe continued to hold the real power of government.

During the reign of Emperor Saimei, Abe no Hirafu(阿倍比羅夫) led a naval expedition to the Tohoku region, including Akita and Tsugaru, to subjugate the Emishi(蝦夷), and to advance the rule of the country.

Furthermore, dealing with the situation on the Korean Peninsula became an important issue. In 660, when the combined forces of Tang(唐) and Silla(新羅) destroyed Baekje(百済), the prince of Baekje requested reinforcements from Japan, and Empress Saimei responded by sending a large army.

However, in the Battle of Baekgang(白村江の戦い) in 663, the Japanese army was soundly defeated by the combined forces of Tang and Silla, and the dream of reconstructing Baekje was shattered.

As a result of this defeat, Japan became wary of an invasion by Tang and Silla, and hurried to strengthen its defense system. Sakimori（防人） were stationed in northern Kyushu, and Mizuki（水城） and Korean-style mountain castles (such as Ōno Castle(大野城) and Kii(基肄) Castle) were built to strengthen national defense.

5.The reign of Emperor Tenji(天智天皇の治世)

After that, Prince Nakanoōe moved the capital to Ōmi Ōtsu Palace(近江大津宮) in 667, and was enthroned as Emperor Tenchi (天智天皇)in 668. Emperor Tenchi worked hard to reunify the country, and in 670 he created the first nationwide family registry system in Japan, the “Kōgo Nenjaku（庚午年籍）”. This helped him to gain a better understanding of the people and to establish a tax system. In addition, the “Ōmi Code(近江令)” was compiled, and the legal system was further developed.

6.The Jinshin War and the Accession to the Throne of Emperor Tenmu(壬申の乱と天武天皇の即位)

After the death of Emperor Tenchi, there was a fierce conflict between Prince Ōtomo(大友皇子), the son of Emperor Tenchi, and Prince Ōama(大海人皇子), the younger brother of Emperor Tenchi, over the succession to the throne. Prince Ōama succeeded in mobilizing the military forces of the powerful families of the eastern provinces (Mino and Owari), and the Jinshin War（壬申の乱） broke out.

The Jinshin War is considered to be the largest civil war in Japan’s ancient history. Prince Ōama, based in Mino Province’s Fuwa(不破), organized his troops and defeated Prince Ōtomo’s army, which was based in Omi Province’s Otsu Palace. Prince Otomo was defeated and committed suicide, and Prince Ōama was enthroned at Asuka Kiyomihara Palace(飛鳥浄御原宮) the following year in 673, becoming Emperor Tenmu(天武天皇).

Emperor Tenmu further strengthened the centralized system of government and proceeded to make the emperor’s power absolute. For example, he stopped appointing powerful clan leaders as ministers and concentrated power in the hands of the emperor and the imperial family. He also established the Yakusa no Kabane(八色の姓)(eight-lank system) in order to incorporate the clan leaders into the new class system centered on the emperor.

In addition, he worked on compiling the Ritsuryo (律令)(ancient Japanese law) and historical texts, and on minting Japan’s first coins (Fuhonsen(富本銭)). Furthermore, he promoted the deification of the Emperor, and established the use of the title “Emperor(天皇)”.

7.Empress Jito and Fujiwara-kyo(持統天皇と藤原京)

After the death of Emperor Tenmu, his policies were continued by Empress Jito(持統天皇). In 689, Empress Jito enacted the Asuka Kiyomihara Code(飛鳥浄御原令), and in 690 she created the Kōin Nenjaku(庚寅年籍).

In 694, the capital was moved to Fujiwara-kyo(藤原京), which was modeled on the Chinese capital system. Fujiwara-kyo was a planned city based on the jōbō system(条坊制) (a city planning system in which the city is divided into a grid pattern of large roads running in a north-south and east-west direction), and it was a full-fledged capital city where a bureaucratic system centered on the emperor functioned.

8.Summary: The completion of the Ritsuryo state(総括：律令国家の完成へ)

Thus, the series of reforms that began with the Taika Reforms, and which had continued through the Battle of Baekgang and the Jinshin War, were brought to completion by the emperors Temmu and Jito. After this, the Taihō Code(大宝律令) was completed in 701, and the system of a Ritsuryo state centered on the emperor was put in place.

1.The situation on the Korean Peninsula and the influence of the Yamato regime

The Korean Peninsula in the 6th century was undergoing major changes amidst the upheaval in East Asia. In the first half of the 5th century, Goguryeo moved its capital from Mando(丸都) to Pyongyang, and as it pursued a policy of expansion southwards, Baekje and Silla were under pressure and expanded their power to the south. In particular, Silla succeeded in reforming its national government and annexed the Gaya confederation one after another. As a result, in 562 the Gaya confederation came completely under the control of Baekje and Silla, and the influence that the Yamato court had over the southern part of the Korean peninsula declined significantly.

As Gaya was an important region for the Yamato court, not only as a source of iron resources but also as a source of new culture and technology, the decline in its influence had a major impact on the court. The Yamato Court strengthened its diplomatic relations with Baekje, and as part of this, King Seong(聖明王) of Baekje introduced Buddhism to Emperor Kinmei(欽明天皇). This introduction of Buddhism was not just the introduction of a new religion, but also had a significant cultural and technological impact on the Yamato Court, including the introduction of gilt bronze Buddhist statues and temple architecture techniques.

2. The political structure of the Yamato Court and the rise of the Soga family

In the Yamato Court, a system of collective decision-making centered on the ōkimi(great king) was at the heart of politics, with influential clan leaders such as ōomi(supureme omi.”omi” is reigoal elites claiming royal descent) (大臣)and ōmuraji(supreme muraji.”muraji”is prominent regional elites) (大連)taking the lead in discussing important policies, and the ōkimi making the final decision. However, in the early 6th century, the failure of the policy towards the Korean Peninsula led to the downfall of Otomo no Kanamura(大伴金村), and thereafter, Soga no Iname(蘇我稲目) and Mononobe no Okoshi(物部尾輿) emerged to the fore.

The Soga family took charge of the management of the granary (Miyake(屯倉)) and, while seizing control of the financial rights, strengthened their influence by entering into marriage relationships with the imperial family. In particular, Soga no Umako(蘇我馬子) destroyed Mononobe no Moriya(物部守屋) in 587, and in 592 assassinated the Emperor Sujin, whom he had himself installed, and came to seize political power.

After the death of Emperor Sujin, Empress Suiko (Japan’s first female emperor) ascended the throne and, in cooperation with her nephew Prince Umayato (Shotoku Taishi) and Soga no Umako, worked to improve the political system. During this period, the political system functioned as a “cooperative system” in which the emperor, the Soga family, and Prince Umatyato worked together to maintain national stability.

3.Development of the national system and introduction of a legal system

During the reign of Empress Suiko, the development of a large-scale national system progressed. In 603, the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System(冠位十二階) was established, and a system was introduced whereby official positions were awarded according to an individual’s talent and achievements, rather than according to clan affiliation. This was a revolutionary system that aimed to recruit talented people based on their abilities, rather than according to traditional kinship-based order.

Furthermore, in 604, the Seventeen-Article Constitution was established. This was a law based on Buddhist and Confucian thought that encouraged officials to be aware of their role as state bureaucrats, and also set out political principles and ethical standards.

4.The dispatch of envoys to Sui and East Asian diplomacy

In 589, when the Sui Dynasty unified the Northern and Southern Dynasties in China, East Asia entered a new period of order. In 600, the Yamato Court sent its first envoy to Sui in an attempt to establish diplomatic relations. In 607, Ono no Imoko (小野妹子)was sent as an envoy to Sui, and formal exchange with Sui was resumed.

However, the letter of submission to Sui contained the phrase “the King of Wa” (the Japanese name for Sui at the time), which was considered “impolite” by Emperor Yang. Nevertheless, Emperor Yang avoided confrontation with Wa, and the following year he sent Pei Shiqing(裴世清) as an envoy to Wa to maintain diplomatic relations.

The Japanese envoys to Sui were accompanied by students and academic monks such as Takamuko no Genri(高向玄理), Minabuchi no Shōan(南淵請安) and Min(旻), who studied the political system, ideology and culture of Sui on their return to Japan, and had a major impact on the Taika Reforms that followed.

5.The Development of Asuka Culture and the Rise of Buddhism

During the reign of Empress Suiko, Asuka culture flourished. The cultures of Baekje, Goguryeo and Sui were introduced, and temple architecture, Buddhist statue carving and craft techniques developed.

Asuka-ji Temple (Hōkō-ji) (飛鳥寺)was built by Soga no Umako and completed in 596. New techniques were introduced, such as foundation stone construction and tiled roofs.

Horyu-ji Temple(法隆寺) was built by Prince Umayato. The Shakamuni Triad, which is said to have been made by Kuratsukuri no Tori(鞍作鳥) was created.

As for craftwork, the Horyu-ji Temple Tamamushi Zushi(玉虫厨子) (Buddhist reliquary) and the Chuguji Temple Tenshukoku Shucho(中宮寺天寿国繍帳) (Buddhist embroidered hanging) were created, demonstrating a high level of technical skill.

The spread of Buddhist thought also progressed, and Prince Umayato is said to have written the “San-kyo-gi-so(三経義疏)” (a commentary on the Lotus Sutra(法華経)) the Vimalakirti Sutra(維摩経), and the Shoman Sutra(勝鬘経)).

6.Conclusion

From the 6th century to the beginning of the 7th century, the Yamato Court achieved great political, cultural and religious development through its interactions with the Korean Peninsula and diplomacy with China (Sui and Tang). The rise of the Soga family, the development of the national system through the cooperation of Empress Suiko and Prince Umayato, diplomatic activities by the envoys to Sui, and the flourishing of Asuka culture – this period was a time when the foundations for the formation of the Japanese nation were laid.

The results of this period led to the Taika Reforms(大化の改新) and the establishment of a state based on the Ritsuryo State(律令国家), and it is regarded as a pivotal period in Japanese history.