Beginning of the Kofun Period
In the latter half of the Yayoi period, tombs with large mounds were already being constructed in many places, but in the mid to late 3rd century, larger kofun tumuli appeared, mainly in western Japan. In general, the Kofun period is distinguished as the period after the appearance of keyhole-shaped mounds.
Most burial mounds during the emergence period were either keyhole-shaped or trapezoid-and-square-shaped mounds, with keyhole-shaped mounds being more common in western Japan, whereas trapezoid-and-square-shaped mounds were more common in eastern Japan. They had uniform characteristics, such as burial facilities with long wooden coffins in pit-style stone chambers and numerous bronze mirrors and other magical funerary goods.
The early stage of the Early Kofun Period is called the emergence stage. The largest of the tumuli from the emergence period is Hashihaka Kofun in Nara Prefecture. During this period, a political coalition was formed by the forces in the central Kinki region, centering on the Yamato region. This political union centered on the Yamato region is called the Yamato regime. Kofun tumuli spread to the southern Tohoku region by the middle of the 4th century at the latest, which also indicates that a vast area of eastern Japan was incorporated into the Yamato regime.
mound shape and funerary goods
Kofun tumuli come in a variety of shapes, including keyhole-shaped, trapezoid-and-square-shaped, square, rectangular and circular mounds. The most common types are square and circular mounds, but all of the large tumuli are keyhole-shaped mound, which were used by powerful clans in various regions. Haniwa terra-cotta tombs are arranged on the mound, the slope is covered with thatched stones, and in many cases, the mound is surrounded by a moat. In the Early Period, cylindrical haniwa and house-shaped haniwa were used, as well as shields, quivers, and lids. In the early and middle ages, wooden coffins and sarcophagi were placed in pit-type stone burial chambers, and clay burial chambers with coffins covered with clay were constructed in pit-type burial chambers in the early and middle ages. In the early period, many of the burial accessories were of a magical or religious nature, such as iron weapons and farming tools, as well as a large number of bronze mirrors, including triangular-rimmed bronze mirrors(三角縁神獣鏡), and bracelet-shaped stone objects, suggesting that the burial subjects of the tombs in this period were priests. In the middle period, the number of bronze mirrors and jasper products decreases, while the number of iron armor, swords, and other items increases markedly, suggesting a stronger military leadership character of the great kings and chiefs. In addition, many items with continental technology, such as harnesses, crowns, and gold and silver jewelry, were also found in the burial mounds, indicating that the powerful chiefs showed interest in continental technology and culture.
The largest kofun is the Daisenryo Kofun (Tomb of Nintoku-tennō) in Osaka, built in the middle period. The mound is 486m long and is surrounded by a two- to three-story moat. The area surrounding the tomb, including the area where the smaller, subordinate burial mounds were built, covers an area of 80 hectares. Together with the second largest kofun, the Kondagobyōyama Kofun (Tomb of Ojin-tennō) in Osaka Prefecture, it is considered to be the tomb of a great king of the Yamato regime in the 5th century.
The distribution area of the keyhole-shaped mounds during this period extended from Kagoshima Prefecture in the south to Iwate Prefecture in the north, indicating the expansion of the Yamato regime’s sphere of influence. In addition to the Kinki region, there are other areas where huge keyhole-shaped mounds were constructed, such as the Okayama Plain (Kibi) and the northern Kanto region (Meno), and it can be inferred that these areas had particularly powerful leaders among the political coalition of the Yamato regime.
changes in east asian affairs and the yamato regime
In the fourth century, the situation in East Asia underwent major changes.
In China, the Jin Dynasty (Western Jin), which succeeded the Wei Dynasty, temporarily unified the country, but it was destroyed by the Xiongnu and other invaders in the early 4th century, and some of the royal families fled to the south of Jiang to establish the Eastern Jin Dynasty. First, Goguryeo, which had been based in northeastern China, expanded its power to the south, and in 313 destroyed the county of Yeoknam and took control of the northern part of the Korean peninsula. The southern part of the Korean peninsula was divided into three regions, Mahan, Benhan, and Jinhan, which consisted of many small states. Baekje formed the state in Mahan, Silla formed the state in Jinhan, and in Benhan, each small state also saw the rise of a powerful figure.
In order to obtain iron resources, the Yamato regime attempted to exert influence through negotiations with the kings of the Kaya (also called Kala) countries in the Benkan region. The shift from Chinese bronze mirrors to iron weapons and armaments of the Kayan system in the latter half of the 4th century indicates that changes in East Asian affairs were reflected in changes in the Yamato regime’s foreign negotiations and in the growing military character of the regime.
At the end of the 4th century, Goguryeo moved further south to put pressure on Baekje and Silla, and a monument to King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo(好太王), erected in 414, records that Japan supported Baekje and fought against Goguryeo while the nations were at odds on the Korean peninsula from the late 4th century to the early 5th century.
In the 5th century, the presence of Wa(Japan) reappeared in Chinese history books. According to “An Account of the State of Wa”in the Book of Song(宋書「倭国伝」), the five kings of Wa paid tribute to the Southern Court in the 5th century, seeking recognition of their status as kings of Wa and a title indicating their influence in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. This was done in order to borrow the authority of the emperor to strengthen domestic rule and secure political dominance on the Korean peninsula.
expansion of the power of the Yamato regime
The superscription sent to the Southern Court by Bu, one of the Five Kings of Wa(倭の五王) indicates that the Yamato regime greatly expanded its sphere of influence to the east and west in the 5th century. Inscriptions on swords excavated from the Etafuneyama Kofun in Kumamoto Prefecture and the Inariyama Kofun in Saitama Prefecture indicate that the king of the Yamato regime during this period was referred to as the Great King(大王). As the Great King’s influence grew stronger, he gradually came under control, although it is reported that some of the powerful chiefs in various regions rebelled against him. In particular, the political organization of the Yamato regime was further strengthened in the early 6th century with the overthrow of Iwai, the ruler of Tsukushi, who had rebelled with Silla (Iwai Rebellion(磐井の乱)).
The progress of regional rule by the Yamato regime can be seen in the changes in the construction of kofun tumuli, which began to increase in the latter half of the 5th century, and accelerated in the late Kofun period (6th century onward). Most small burial mounds are round or square mounds with a diameter or side of about 10 m. They are called clustered kofun(群集墳) because they are grouped together in groups of about 10 to 100 burial mounds.
The reason for the construction of clustered kofun is thought to have been the policy of the Yamato regime, which allowed the powerful peasant class that had emerged as a result of the development of agricultural productivity the privilege of building tombs, and sought to incorporate them directly into the ruling organization, which was under the power of regional leaders. Although the construction of keyhole-shaped mounds continued to be popular, the smaller size of these mounds in all regions except the central Kinki region indicates the widening power gap between the Yamato regime and the regional leaders.
culture of the Kofun period
In the late Kofun period, from the 6th century onward, the horizontal stone chamber(横穴式石室) introduced from the Korean Peninsula was widely adopted in all types of kofun, and some leading kofun had house-shaped stone coffins inside. The structure of the burial chamber, which allows for burial by opening the entrance, is suitable for the burial of a family member. In some areas, many tombs were constructed by digging into the slope of a mountain and using it as a grave chamber. In addition to weapons, harnesses, and jewelry, everyday eating and drinking utensils such as Sue ware(須恵器) and Haji were(土師器) also stored in stone chambers and side holes. This indicates the spread of the idea that the afterlife was an extension of daily life, influenced by the continental conception of the other world.
When exchange with the continent became active from around the latter half of the 4th century, many people came to Japan, especially from the Korean peninsula. These visitors introduced new technologies such as weaving, metalworking, pottery making, construction, and civil engineering, as well as horse breeding and riding methods. The knowledge of writing was also brought by the visitors. The Yamato regime made active use of them. Those who were skilled in writing and calligraphy were put in charge of records and documents necessary for politics and diplomacy, as well as financial affairs.
As new technology and knowledge were introduced by the visitors, lifestyles also changed. Most of the people still lived in pit-house, but inside pit-hous, kamado, a fireplace, was built instead of a furnace. Hard Sue ware fired in semi-underground kilns became widespread, and new types of continental pottery, such as steamer for steaming, appeared in earthenware.
Agricultural productivity improved with the spread of high-performance iron-tipped farming tools and earth-moving equipment, as well as the development of plateaus that had been previously unexplored due to the difficulty of irrigation. The powerful chiefs who guided such development operated residences in locations separate from the villages of the people, and built stilt houses(掘立柱建物) for their residences. Various products such as rice, textiles, and weapons are thought to have been stored in stilted warehouses associated with the residences. The largest of these warehouses is the Houenzaka site in Osaka Prefecture, which is believed to have belonged to the Yamato regime.
People at that time feared and respected the sun, mountains, rivers, huge rocks, and giant trees as gods or places where gods resided, and later built shrines to worship them. In the spring, people in the villages held the Toshigoi Matsuri(祈年祭) to pray to the gods for a good harvest, and in the fall, they held the Niiname Matsuri(新嘗祭) to offer the newly harvested grains to the gods. There were also magical customs such as misogi(禊), harae(祓), and futomani(太占), as well as kukatachi(盟神探湯). The ancestral and guardian deities of the clan were also worshipped as clan deities, and myths related to clan deities arose. In the 6th and 7th centuries, when the unification of the nation progressed, these myths and legends of the clan were compiled in the “Teiki(帝紀)” and “Kyuji(旧辞),” along with the myths and legends of the the Great King(大王) family and the genealogy of the the Great King family.
In the 6th century, Chinese religion and learning were actively accepted through active exchanges with the Korean peninsula. From Baekje, doctors of the Five Classics(五経博士) and doctors of divination, calendar, and medicine came to Japan, transmitting Confucianism and other knowledge. Buddhism, which originated in India, was introduced by the mid-6th century from Baekje, which was trying to strengthen mutual relations with Japan after the Northern Buddhist (Mahayana) lineage entered the Korean peninsula via Central Asia and China.
Buddhism was first embraced by the Soga(蘇我氏) and other clans of the migratory lineage, and eventually spread to the Great King family and other powerful clans. However, the powerful clans did not have a deep understanding of Buddhist doctrines, and they are thought to have worshipped it as an exotic deity that brought prosperity to their clans. Taoism, which originated in China, was also introduced by the Korean immigrants and influenced the beliefs of the Japanese.