2025年 2月 の投稿一覧

The Accession to the Throne and Political Reforms of Emperor Kōnin(光仁天皇の即位と政治改革)

Political Turmoil and the Rise of Emperor Kōnin

At the end of the Nara Period, Japanese politics were in turmoil due to the rise of Buddhist power and the struggle for power among the aristocracy.

In particular, Empress Shōtoku(称徳天皇) (the second reign of Empress Kōken(孝謙天皇)) was a devout Buddhist, and her appointment of the Buddhist monk Dōkyo(道鏡) to a position of great influence in government led to a backlash from the aristocracy.

After the death of Empress Shōtoku, Fujiwara no Momokawa(藤原百川) and others led a campaign to install Emperor Kōnin(光仁天皇), a member of the Emperor Tenji (天智天皇)lineage, rather than the Emperor Tenmu(天武天皇) lineage. This led to the restoration of the imperial line descended from Emperor Tenji.

Restoring the economy and rebuilding the government

Emperor Kōnin (reigned 770-781) reversed the preferential treatment of Buddhism during the reign of Empress Shōtoku and worked to reform the government and finances.

He reduced the number of government officials and bureaucrats, and tightened up local government by strengthening the supervision of provincial and district governors.

In addition, the descendants of Prince Nagaya(長屋王)　and Prince Funado(道祖王) were suspected of plotting a rebellion and punished.

Confusion over the Imperial succession and the appointment of Emperor Kanmu as Crown Prince

Emperor Konin’s wife was the half-sister of Empress Shōtoku, and her son, Prince Osabe(他戸親王), was appointed as the Crown Prince. However, she and Prince Osabe were deposed and soon died after being accused of cursing the Emperor Kōnin.

After that, Emperor Kōnin made Prince Yamabe(山部親王) (later Emperor Kanmu(桓武天皇)), the son of Takano no Niigasa(高野新笠), a descendant of a family with migrant origins, his heir apparent.

Emperor Kanmu’s political reforms and relocation of the capital

Emperor Kanmu(桓武天皇) (reigned 781-806) continued the policies of his father, Emperor Kōnin, and carried out further political reforms.

(1) Moving the capital to Nagaoka-kyō (784)

In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Nagaoka-kyō(長岡京) because the political influence of the Buddhist forces was growing in Heijo-kyō(平城京).

However, the following year, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu(藤原種継), who was the central figure in the construction of Nagaoka-kyo, was assassinated, and Prince Sawara(早良親王), who was suspected of involvement in the incident, was deposed and died a violent death.

This incident led to increased political instability in Nagaoka-kyō.

(2) Relocation of the capital to Heian-kyo (794)

In 794, Emperor Kanmu abolished Nagaoka-kyō and built a new capital, Heian-kyō(平安京), in the Yamashiro region(山背国). At the same time, the Heian period(平安時代), which would last for around 400 years, began.

Heian-kyō was laid out with the imperial palace at its northern end, as well as administrative facilities such as the Chōdō-in(朝堂院) and Buraku-in(豊楽院), and the Suzaku-Oji Avenue(朱雀大路) running through the center, dividing the city into a grid pattern of left and right wards. However, urban development in the right ward was delayed due to the fact that it was a low-lying, marshy area.

(3) Tōhoku Management and the Policy of Conquering the Barbarians

The policy of expanding control over the Tōhoku region that had continued since the Nara period was also one of the important issues for Emperor Kanmu. The government strengthened its military forces in response to the frequent rebellions of the Emishi（蝦夷）.

① Korehari no Azamaro’s Rebellion (780)

During the reign of Emperor Kōnin, the powerful Emishi clan leader Korehari no Azamaro(伊治呰麻呂) launched a large-scale rebellion, attacking and burning down Taga Fort(多賀城).

This rebellion led the Imperial Court to decide to strengthen its control over the Tōhoku region.

② The Ki no Kosami Expedition (789)

Emperor Kanmu appointed Ki no Kosami(紀古佐美) as Seiō Taishi(征東大使)(“General of Eastern Conquest”), and in 789 dispatched him to try to defeat the Emishi in the Isawa region(胆沢地域) in the middle reaches of the Kitakami River(北上川), but the government forces were defeated in a major battle by the fierce fighting of the Emishi chieftain, Aterrui(阿弖流為).

③ The Conquest of the Emishi by Tamuramaro (802)

Afterwards, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro(坂上田村麻呂), who had become Seii Taishōgun(征夷大将軍) (“Great General for Subduing Barbarians”), built Isawa Fort(胆沢城) in 802 and forced Aterui to surrender.

In the following year, 803, he built Shiwa Fort(志波城) on the upper reaches of the Kitakami River, strengthening his base of control in the Tōhoku region.

He also relocated the Emishi(蝦夷) to various locations, further extending his rule.

(4) Financial and Military Reforms under Emperor Kanmu

Emperor Kanmu implemented aggressive financial reforms in response to the deterioration of the national finances caused by the burden of moving the capital and conquering the barbarians.

① Reform of the military system

As military tensions with Silla eased, Emperor Kanmu abolished the old military corps in areas other than Tōhoku and Kyūshū in 792, and introduced a new system of conscription of children of county officials and influential farmers as “Kondei(健児)”. This reduced the burden on soldiers while also aiming to make the army more elite.

② Establishment of the Kageyushi

As irregularities were rife when the provincial governors were replaced, Emperor Kanmu established the Kangeyushi(勘解由使)(Office to Oversee Provincial Governor’s Performance) and tightened the scrutiny of the Keyujō(解由状) (documents recording the financial situation of the provincial governors).

(4) Tokusei Sōron and the suspension of the two major projects

In 805, Sugano no Mamichi(菅野真道) and Fujiwara no Otsugu(藤原緒嗣), two of Emperor Kanmu’s most trusted advisors, held a “Tokusei Sōron(徳政相論)” to discuss the state of the nation’s finances.

Sugano no Mamichi argued that continuing the two major projects of pacifying the Tōhoku region (subjugating the Emishi) and building Heian-kyō would lead to national stability.

On the other hand, Fujiwara no Otsugu pointed out that these projects were putting pressure on the national finances and placing a heavy burden on the people, and argued that military and construction work (building the capital) should be halted.

In the end, Emperor Kanmu adopted Fujiwara no Otsugu’s opinion and made the decision to stop the management of the Tōhoku region and the construction of Heian-kyō. This led to the rebuilding of the national finances.

The accession to the throne and reforms of Emperor Saga

After the death of Emperor Kanmu, Emperor Heizei (平城天皇)(reigned 806-809) ascended the throne, but due to illness he abdicated in favor of his younger brother, Emperor Saga(嵯峨天皇) (reigned 809-823). During the reign of Emperor Saga, further political reforms were carried out.

(1) Retierd Sovering Heizei Incident (810)

Retired Sovereign Heizei(平城太上天皇) (Emperor Heizei) attempted to move the capital to Heijo-kyō, but this led to a conflict with Emperor Saga, who suppressed the rebellion with military force.

At this time, his lover Fujiwara no Kusuko(藤原薬子) committed suicide, and her brother, Fujiwara no Nakanari(藤原仲成), was executed (Retierd Sovering Heizei Incident(平城太上天皇の変), also known as Kusuko Incident(薬子の変)).

(2) Establishment of the Kurōdo-dokoro

In response to this incident, Emperor Saga established the Kurōdo-dokoro(蔵人所) (Office of the Secretary) to ensure that the emperor’s orders were carried out promptly, and appointed Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu(藤原冬嗣) and others to the position of Kurōdo no Tō(蔵人頭) (Chief Secretary). This was intended to strengthen the emperor’s authority.

(3) Establishment of the Kebiishi

In order to maintain public order in Heian-kyō, Emperor Saga established the Kebiishi(検非違使). Initially, it was a police force within the capital, but later it also came to have a judicial function.

(4) Legal Reform

Emperor Saga compiled the Kōnin Kyakushiki(弘仁格式) as a supplement to the Ritsuryō(律令). This was followed by the Jōgan Kyakushiki（貞観格式）(Emperor Seiwa(清和天皇)) and the Engi Kyakushiki（延喜格式） (Emperor Daigo(醍醐天皇)), and these are collectively known as the “Sandai Kyakushiki(三代格式)”.

(5) Development of ceremonies

In order to clarify the order of the Imperial Court, Chinese-style ceremonies and rituals were introduced, and the “Dairishiki(内裏式)” was compiled. This strengthened the political order centered on the Emperor.

Summary

The reigns of Emperor Kōnin, Emperor Kanmu and Emperor Saga were periods in which the influence of Buddhist power was eliminated, a new political foundation was established through the relocation of the capital, and the management of the Tōhoku region and financial reform were promoted.

The policies of Emperor Kanmu put pressure on the national finances, and ultimately the decision was made to cancel the project through the Tokusei Sōron.

Emperor Saga established the administrative system of Heian-kyō and promoted the reorganization of the ritsuryō system and the establishment of ceremonies.

These reforms established the political foundation of the Heian period.

The Rise of Buddhism and the Concept of Chingo Kokka(仏教の隆盛と鎮護国家思想)

During the Nara period, Buddhism developed under the strong patronage of the state, and the concept of Chingo Kokka(鎮護国家) was particularly emphasized. This was a way of thinking that aimed to stabilize the country through Buddhism, and it formed the basis of the religious policy of the time.

Large temples were built one after another in and around Heijōkyō, and these temples served not only as places of worship, but also as bases for the study of Buddhist theory and the education of priests.

The establishment of the Nanto Rokushū and the role of foreign and Japanese monks studying abroad(南都六宗の成立と留学僧・渡来僧の役割)

In the world of Buddhism in the Nara period, various teachings that originated in India and China were studied, and the Nanto Rokushū (Six Southern Schools of Nara Buddhism 南都六宗) , namely the Sanron(三論宗), Jōjitsu(成実宗), Hossō(法相宗), Kusha(倶舎宗), Kegon(華厳宗) and Ritsu(律宗) schools, were formed. Unlike later independent sects, these schools coexisted within a single temple.

The development of Buddhism in Japan was greatly influenced by the contributions of the monks who accompanied the Kentōshi envoys(the Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty 遣唐使) and brought back knowledge from there, as well as the monks who came to Japan from China and introduced Buddhism precepts(戒律) to Japan.

In particular, the great Tang Dynasty monk Ganjin(Jianzhen 鑑真) introduced the formal Buddhism precepts system to Japan, established the first Buddhism precepts platform(kaidan 戒壇) in Japan at Todaiji Temple(東大寺), and then built Tōshōdaiji Temple(唐招提寺) with the aim of training monks.

In addition to Todaiji Temple, the Nara period also saw the establishment of Buddhism precepts platform at Tsukushi Kanzeonji Temple(筑紫観世音寺) and Shimotsuke Yakushiji Temple(下野薬師寺), and a system was put in place to train state-approved Buddhist monks.

Gyōki and the Popularization of Buddhism(行基と仏教の民衆化)

While the government actively protected Buddhism, it also strictly controlled the activities of Buddhist monks and restricted their proselytizing in the private sector.

However, Gyōki ignored these prohibitions and, while preaching to the general populace, he also developed social activities such as irrigation projects, road construction, and relief for the poor. As a result, he gained the support of many people, but at first he was suppressed by the government. However, later his achievements were recognized, and he was awarded the title of high priest, and he also made a major contribution to the construction of the Great Buddha at Todaiji Temple.

As a result of these developments, Buddhism gradually became more than just for the ruling class, and spread among the general populace. There were also problems that the government was unable to control, such as the increase in the number of unapproved monks who became monks without formal qualifications(shidosō 私度僧), and the use of temples by some wealthy people to accumulate wealth.

The relationship between Buddhism and politics(仏教と政治の関係)

During the Nara period, the emperor himself was a devout believer in Buddhism, and there were cases where particular monks were given important positions.

In particular, Emperor Shōmu and Emperor Kōken (Emperor Shoutoku) were deeply interested in Buddhism, and monks such as Genbō(玄昉) and Dōkyō(道鏡), who received their patronage, came to have influence in the political world.

In addition, the repeated construction of large temples by the emperors placed a heavy burden on the national finances, and this was one of the causes of the financial difficulties that ensued.

Buddhism and social welfare(仏教と社会福祉)

Welfare activities based on Buddhist teachings were also carried out. A prime example of this is the establishment of the Hidden’in (a relief facility for the poor and orphans 悲田院) and the Seyakuin (a facility for the treatment of the sick) by Empress Kōmyō(光明皇后).

These facilities were based on the Buddhist concept that “accumulating good deeds leads to good fortune”, and they became a forerunner of social welfare at the time.

Shinbutsu-shūgō and the diversification of beliefs(神仏習合と信仰の多様化)

In this period, Buddhism developed not just as a religion, but also by merging with Japan’s indigenous religions. In particular, the idea of Shinbutsu-shūgō(神仏習合), which equates Buddha with Kami(神), emerged, and Buddhism was combined with Japan’s unique Kami.

Buddhism also became a means of seeking benefits in this life(現世利益), and it merged with ancestor worship, leading to the popular construction of Buddhist statues and the copying of sutras(経典).

Buddhist Art and Culture in the Nara Period(奈良時代の仏教美術と文化)

During the Nara period, art and craftwork developed greatly alongside the development of Buddhism.

Architecture

The Nara period is characterized by grand temple architecture with tiled roofs(瓦葺) and foundation stones(礎石), and some of the most famous examples include the Lecture Hall(講堂) of Tōshōdaiji Temple(唐招提寺), the Hokkedo Hall(法華堂) of Tōdaiji Temple, the Main Hall(金堂) of Tōshōdaiji Temple, and the Treasury of Shōsōin(正倉院).

Buddhist Sculpture

In addition to the traditional gilt-bronze and wooden statues, sozō(clay statues made by coating clay with a hardening agent 塑像) and kanshitsuzō(dry lacquer statues made by coating with layers of lacquer 乾漆像) were introduced during this period, making it possible to create more realistic and expressive statues.

Some of the most famous works include the Fukūkenjaku Kannon statue (不空羂索観音像) in the Hokkedō at Tōdaiji Temple(東大寺法華堂), the Nikkō and Gekkō Bosatsu statues (Sun and Moon Bodhisattva 日光菩薩と月光菩薩) , the Shukongōshin statue(執金金剛神像), and the Hachibusshū statues(八部衆像)including the Ashura statue(阿修羅像) at Kōfukuji Temple(興福寺).

Paintings

The paintings are characterized by their gorgeous style, which was influenced by the Tang dynasty, and examples include the “Jukabijin-zu(樹下美人図)” (painting of beautiful women under the trees) on the “Chōmōryūjo-Byōbu(鳥毛立女屏風)” (folding screen with women standing on birds’ feathers) in the Shōsōin and the “Kichijōten-zō(吉祥天像)” (goddess of good fortune) statue at Yakushiji Temple.

In addition, the “Kako-genzai-e-inga-kyō(過去現在絵因果経)” (the Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect in the Past and Present) is thought to be the prototype for later emakimono(illustrated scrolls 絵巻物).

Crafts

The Shōsōin contains many items related to Emperor Shōmu(聖武天皇), and its collection includes a variety of international art and craft objects such as the Radenshitan no Gogen Biwa (lacquered five-stringed biwa 螺鈿紫檀五弦琵琶), the Shikkohei(lacquered ewer 漆胡瓶), and the Hkururi no Wan(white lapis lazuli bowl 白瑠璃碗).

These items show traces of trade with West and South Asia, and symbolize the international cultural exchange of the Nara period.

Hyakumantō Dharani(百万塔陀羅尼)

The Hyakumantō Dharani, which was ordered to be made by Empress Shōtoku(称徳天皇), is considered to be one of the oldest extant printed works, and it is thought that woodblock or copperplate printing techniques were used.

From Nara Buddhism to Heian Buddhism(奈良仏教から平安仏教へ)

At the end of the Nara period, some monks began to retreat into the mountains to practice asceticism, disliking the power and politicization of the large temples. This trend eventually led to the emergence of new Buddhist movements such as Tendai(天台宗) and Shingon(真言宗), which were established during the Heian period.