1.The Taihō Code and the establishment of the Ritsuryō State(大宝律令と律令国家の成立)
In 701, under the reign of Emperor Monmu(文武天皇), the Taihō Code(大宝律令) was completed by Prince Osakabe(刑部親王) and Fujiwara no Fuhito(藤原不比等). Later, Fujiwara no Fuhito took the lead in creating the Yoro Code(養老律令), which was put into effect by Fujiwara no Nakamaro(藤原仲麻呂) in 757.
The term “ritsu(律)” refers to the criminal law, and the term “ryō(令)” refers to the administrative law and general laws. The Taihō Ritsu(大宝律) was largely based on the Tang Ritu（唐律）, but the Taihō Rei(大宝令) was significantly revised to suit the actual situation in Japan.
The establishment and implementation of these codes and laws established the framework of a centralized ritsuryō state, and established the legal foundation for national governance.
In addition, in 702, the Japanese missions to the Tang Dynasty(唐), which had been suspended for about 30 years, were resumed, and the name “Nihon(Japan 日本)” was officially used in reference to the Tang Dynasty.
2.Structure of Central and Local Government(中央・地方行政の構造)
Central government in the Ritsuryō State was composed of two offices: the Daijōkan(太政官), which oversaw all aspects of government, and the Jingikan（神祇官）, which oversaw the rituals of the gods.
Under the Daijōkan, there were eight ministries (Nakatsukasashō(Ministry of Central Affairs中務省), Shikibushō(Ministry of Ceremonies 式部省), Jibushō(Ministry of Civil Administration 治部省),Minbushō(Ministry of Popular Affairs 民部省), Hyōbushō(Ministry of Military Affairs 兵部省), Gyōbushō（Ministry of Justice 刑部省）, Ōkurashō(Ministry of Finance 大蔵省), and Kunaisyō(Ministry of the Imperial Household 宮内省) that shared responsibility for government affairs and were responsible for the management of the state.
Important government policies were implemented after being discussed and approved by the Dajōdaizin(supreme minister 太政大臣), the Sadaijin(minister of the left 左大臣), the Udaijin(minister of the right,右大臣), and the Dainagon(senior counselors 大納言), and then receiving the Emperor’s permission. In addition, the Danjōdai (an inspection agency 弾正台) and the Goeifu (a military police agency 五衛府) were established independently of the control of the two ministries and eight ministries.
Local administration was divided into the Kinai(畿内) region (Yamato, Kawachi, Settsu, Yamashiro, and later Izumi(大和,河内,摂津,山背,後の和泉) and the Shichido(七道)(Touzando, Toukaido, Hokurikudou, Sanindou, Sanyoudou, Nankaidou, and Saikaidou(東山道,東海道,北陸道,山陰道,山陽道,南海道,西海道), and the whole country was further divided into koku(province 国),gun(district 郡),ri（township 里）.
Kokushi(国司): A nobleman dispatched from the capital was appointed and administered the government at the kokufu (provincial governor’s office 国府).
Gunji(郡司): Local clan leaders were appointed to administer affairs at the guuke 郡家).
Richō(里長): Prominent farmers were appointed to oversee village administration.
In Kyushu, the Dazaifu(大宰府) was established and was known as the “distant imperial court(遠の朝廷)”, playing an important role as a strategic location for diplomacy and military affairs. In the capital, the Sakyōshiki(左京職) and the Ukyōshiki(右京職)(left and right administrative offices) were established, and in Naniwa(難波), the Settsushiki(摂津職) administrative office was established.
3.The bureaucratic and class systems(官僚制度と身分制度)
Bureaucratic positions were allocated according to the four-tiered official system (kami（長官）,suke(次官),jou(判官),sakan(主典)), and Kanisōtōsei(a system of official ranks 官位相当制) was introduced, whereby officials were appointed to positions according to their rank. Officials were promoted based on their performance evaluations, and they were paid fuko(residence units 封戸), denchi(rice fields 田地), and roku（goods 禄）according to their rank and official position. However, there was a large gap in the treatment of senior and junior officials, and many senior officials were from influential clans in the Kinai region. In addition, under the Oni no sei(蔭位の制), the descendants of officials of the fifth rank and above were given preferential treatment in terms of promotion, and the system was set up so that privileged positions were inherited.
The class system was broadly divided into two categories: ryōmin(upper class 良民) and senmin(lower class 賤民). senmin people were further divided into those who were owned by the government (ryōto (the imperial tomb guards 陵戸), kanto(government servants 官戸), and kunuhi(government slaves 公奴婢) and those who were owned by private individuals (kenin(clan servants 家人)and shinuhi(private slaves 私奴婢), and were known as the “Goshiki no Sen(five-colored lowly people 五色の賤)”. Marriages between ryōmin people and senmin people were forbidden, and the social class differences were fixed.
4. Taxation and Labor(税制と労役)
In the Ritsuryō State, a family registry was created every six years, and the people were organized into ko (not family units, but administrative units 戸). Every 50 ko made up a ri(里), and the Handen Shūju law (field allotment system) was applied there. Ryōmin（良民）men over the age of six were given 2 tan(段) of rice fields, women were given two-thirds of that, and nuhi(slaves 奴婢) were given one-third of that.
The following types of taxation were in place:
So (tax on crops 租): 3% of the harvest was paid in rice.
Chō (tax on goods 調): silk, cloth and local produce were paid in kind.
You (tax on labor 庸): cloth was paid in lieu of labor.
Zōyou (forced labor 雑徭): up to 60 days of labor per year was imposed.
In addition, under the military service system, one person in every three or four ko(戸) was conscripted as a soldier and assigned to duties as a guard or sakimori(a border guard 防人). The principle was that people were responsible for their own weapons and food, and military service and forced labor placed a heavy burden on the people.
5.Economy and Money(経済と貨幣)
The state lent rice in the spring and summer, and in the autumn it collected 50% interest along with the rice (this system is called suiko(出挙) or kusuiko(公出挙) ), and used this as a source of revenue. The Wadōkaichin (和同開珎)coin was issued as currency, but its circulation was limited to the capital and the area around the provincial capital, and it did not become widely used. In the countryside, cloth and rice continued to be used as currency.
6.Summary(まとめ)
The establishment of the Taiho Code and the formation of the Ritsuryō State created a centralized national system and became an important turning point in Japanese history. However, the fixed class system, excessive tax burden, and compulsory labor duties placed a heavy burden on the people, and these factors also led to the later collapse of the Ritsuryō system.