Formation of the Kōnin and Jyōgan Culture(弘仁・貞観文化の形成)
The culture from the move to Heian-kyō to the end of the 9th century is called the Kōnin and Jyōgan Culture(弘仁・貞観文化), based on the era names of the Emperors Saga and Seiwa(嵯峨天皇・清和天皇).
Prosperity of Chinese literature(漢文学の隆盛)
During this period, Tang culture developed mainly among the nobility, and Chinese literature flourished at court.
“The Ryōunshū(凌雲集)”, edited by Ono no Minemori(小野岑守) and others, “the Bunka Shūreishū(文華秀麗集)”, edited by Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu(藤原冬嗣) and others, and “the Keikokushū(経国集)”, edited by Yoshimine no Yasuyo(良岑安世) and others, were compiled.
Other known compilers include Emperor Saga, Kūkai(空海), Ono no Takamura(小野篁), and Sugawara no Michizane(菅原道真).
Development of Japanese Writing(日本語表記の発展)
Meanwhile, during this period, katakana characters(片仮名), which uses a portion of kanji (mana(真名)), and hiragana characters(平仮名), which uses a cursive(草書体) form of Manyōgana(万葉仮名), emerged as phonetic characters to efficiently express the Japanese language.
The acquisition of these uniquely Japanese scripts provided the soil for Kokufū Bunka(native Japanese culture 国風文化) that emerged from the 10th century onward.
Changes in Buddhism and the Birth of New Sects(仏教の変革と新宗派の誕生)
Suppression of Buddhist Power
During the Nara period (710-794), Buddhism had a great influence on national politics, but in order to eliminate the negative effects of this influence, temples in Heijo-kyō were not allowed to relocate to Heian-kyō. Toji-Temple(東寺) and Saiji-Tmple(西寺) were built in Heian-kyō, but other new temples were built outside the capital.
Saichō and Kūkai (Tendai Sect an Singon Sect)
In the early 9th century, Saichō(最澄) (Dengyō Daishi 伝教大師) and Kūkai(空海) (Kōbō Daishi 弘法大師) returned from Tang China. They preached a new Buddhist teaching that distanced itself from the great temples of Nara.
Saichō, who had studied Tendai Buddhism(天台宗), preached that all people had the potential to become Buddhas, opened Enryakuji Temple(延暦寺) on Mount Hiei(比叡山) to train disciples, and requested the court to establish new kaidan(戒壇)(the Buddhism precepts platform) independent of Tōdaiji Temple(東大寺).
Although he was heavily criticized by various existing sects, Saichō refuted the criticism with his writing“Kenkairon(顕戒論),” and after his death, the establishment of kaidan at Enryakuji Temple was approved.
Kūkai studied esoteric Buddhism(密教) in Chang’an(長安), Tang China, and upon his return to Japan, he built Kongōbuji Temple(金剛峯寺) on Mount Kōya(高野山) in Kii Prefecture (紀伊国) and established the Shingon Sect(真言宗).
Singon Sect, which preached the blessing of Buddha through blessing prayers and Sokushin Jōbutsu(即身成仏) (attainment of Buddhahood while in the body in this life), was accepted by aristocrats who wished for Gense Riyaku (benefits received in this life through faith and practice).
In the Tendai Sect, Ennin(円仁) and Enchin(円珍), disciples of Saichō, promoted esoteric Buddhism in the Tendai sect after studying in Tang China. This is called “Taimitsu(台密)”, and the esoteric Buddhism of the Shingon Sect is called “Tōmitsu(東密)” .
The Emergence of Shugendō
Tendai Sect and Singon Sect, which emphasized ascetic practices in the mountains and forests, was combined with traditional mountain worship to form Shugendō (mountain asceticism 修験道).
Development of Esoteric Buddhism Art(密教美術の発展)
The rise of esoteric Buddhism led to the development of esoteric art, which played a role in the Kōnin and Jōkan Culture.
Temples like Murouji Temple(室生寺) in Yamato Prefecture(大和国) were built in the mountains, with their complexes arranged freely according to the terrain, and sculptures and paintings of the much-loved Nyoirin Kannon(如意輪観音), Yakushi Nyorai(薬師如来), and Fudō Myō-ō(不動明王) were created to evoke a mystical atmosphere.
In sculpture, the “ichiboku-zukuri(一木造)” technique of carving a single figure from a single piece of wood became popular, and in painting, mandalas(曼荼羅) were developed to depict the world of esoteric Buddhism.
Development of Calligraphy(書道の発展)
In calligraphy, Tang-style calligraphy became popular, and the emergence of such great calligraphers as Emperor Saga, Kūkai, and Tachibana no Hayanari(橘逸勢) emerged, who were later called the “Sanpitsu(three brush strokes 三筆).