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  • 2024.11.25

Yayoi Period

Beginning of the Yayoi Period

During the Jomon culture, which lasted for more than 10,000 years in the Japanese archipelago, an agricultural society using millet, millet, and rice began in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River around 6,500 BC in mainland China. The agricultural culture was introduced to Japan via the Korean Peninsula, and rice cultivation using paddy fields began in northern Kyushu around the 8th century B.C. at the end of the Jomon Period. By the 5th to 4th century B.C., rice cultivation spread to eastern Japan, and the culture of rice agriculture permeated the entire archipelago except for the Nansei Islands and Hokkaido. This new culture, called the Yayoi Culture, continued until the Kofun Period in the mid-3rd century. The Yayoi culture can be divided into four phases based on changes in earthenware: Early, Early, Middle, and Late.

Characteristics of the Yayoi culture (agriculture, earthenware, cemeteries)

Characteristics of the Yayoi culture include the development of agriculture. In addition to rice cultivation, the cultivation of millet, millet, Japanese millet, Japanese millet and other minor grains also became widespread. Rice farming began in northern Kyushu in the early Yayoi period and reached all of Honshu by the 3rd century B.C. However, it was not established throughout the archipelago, and each region had a different production base. For example, cereal cultivation was the mainstay on the Kanto plateau and in the northern Tohoku region, and agriculture was temporarily abandoned in some areas as the weather turned colder in the 1st century BC. In addition, in the Nansei Islands such as Okinawa and Hokkaido, agricultural culture did not take root, and a culture of food gathering continued. The shell midden culture of the Nansei Islands and the Continental Jomon culture of Hokkaido are examples of this, and it is thought that iron and rice were obtained in exchange for local products in these regions.

During the Yayoi period, paddy fields were made for diverse locations and were divided into small plots. With the introduction of paddy rice cultivation, farming tools were also developed. In the beginning, wooden hoes and plows were used, and stone knives were used for harvesting to cut the earheads. In addition, a main mortar and vertical pestle were used to thresh the harvest, and the harvest was stored in stilts or storage pits. In the early Yayoi period, stone knives and stone axes for making wooden farming tools were introduced from China, and bronze and iron tools were also introduced. Bronze tools appeared in the Early Period, and iron tools in the late Early to early Middle Period, and were used as ritual implements and weapons, but became popular as agricultural tools in the Late Period. In the Late Period, iron sickles and iron-edged hoes and plows became widespread, greatly increasing agricultural productivity.

Yayoi period earthenware is a combination of Jomon earthenware and Korean techniques, and various forms can be seen depending on the intended use, such as jars for boiling and cooking, pots for storing grains, and bowls for serving food. The name Yayoi earthenware also derives from the fact that it was discovered in 1884 in Yayoi Town, Hongo, Tokyo (present-day Yayoi 2-chome, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo). Furthermore, during this period, in addition to pit dwellings, stilt warehouses and flat buildings increased in the settlements, and large settlements were formed, especially in western Japan. Within the settlements, harvests were stored and managed communally, and rituals were held to pray for agricultural stability and prosperity. Bronze bronze bells, bronze swords, and bronze spears were used as ritual implements, and each region had its own unique distribution. This is thought to have led to the formation of regional blocs where common rituals were performed. For example, bronze bells are distributed in the Kinki region, flat bronze swords in the central Seto Inland Sea, and bronze spears and pikes in northern Kyushu.

During the Yayoi period, the dead were buried in communal graves near settlements, using earthen burial mounds, wooden coffins, and box-shaped stone coffins. From the middle Yayoi period onward, burial with outstretched limbs became common, and tombs with mounds, called square periglottis tombs, also emerged. In the northern part of Kyushu, jar coffin tombs and stone tombs are characteristic, and in eastern Japan, re-interment tombs were seen, in which the bones of the deceased were placed in clay vessels and re-interred. In addition, during the late Yayoi period, large mound tombs were constructed in various areas, and the deceased were regarded as kings of small countries. For example, the Tatetsuki Tumulus（楯築墳丘墓） mound tombs in Okayama Prefecture and the four-cornered projecting mound tombs in the San’in region are representative examples.

From the mid-Yayoi period onward, many small states were divided, mainly in northern Kyushu, and conflicts frequently broke out. Different chiefs emerged in each region, uniting groups as leaders of agricultural rituals and trade. In addition, conflicts arose over the securing of arable land, water, and important trade goods such as iron and bronze vessels, and military force was used.

Division of small countries

From the mid to late Yayoi period, regional chiefs gained power, mainly in western Japan, and eventually a regional federation developed, leading to a period in which many small states were divided. As relations among these small states became increasingly active, exchanges with China had a major impact on the Japanese archipelago. Some chiefs sought to raise their status in relation to other countries by paying tribute to Chinese emperors, using the authority of China as a backdrop.

In mainland China, Emperor Wu of the Han (Former Han) Dynasty conquered the northern part of the Korean Peninsula in 108 B.C. and established four counties, including Lelang Commandery（楽浪郡）. As a result, Lelang Commandery became an important base between the Japanese archipelago and China, and the people of the Japanese archipelago, called “Wa people（倭人）,” developed exchanges with Lelang Commandery via the Korean peninsula. According to the “Treatise on Eastern Barbarians(後漢書東夷伝)”, in 57, the country of Na(奴国) of Wa in northern Kyushu paid tribute to Emperor Gwangmu of the Later Han Dynasty, and received official recognition from the emperor in the form of a “book of feudal domain”. At that time, the king of the country of Na was given a gold seal. This gold seal was discovered on Shiga Island in Fukuoka Prefecture in 1784 during the Edo period and is thought to have been given to the king of the country of Na by Emperor Kwangmu, as it is inscribed with the words “King of Na in Wa of Han”(漢委奴国王). The gold seal was not merely a proof of kingship, but also signified his authority as the official ruler of the “Wa” region as recognized by the emperor, and by obtaining this seal, the king of the country of Na gained an advantageous position over the surrounding smaller states.

After this, it is recorded that in 107, the Japanese king “Suisho”(帥升) and other chiefs again paid tribute to the Gōhan and sent envoys to the Gōhan. The fact that the name of Suisho is still preserved in Chinese records suggests that he was trying to gain the backing of the Later Han Dynasty as the representative of a coalition of small states centered in northern Kyushu. Under the Chinese book-entry system, Japanese kings increased their authority within the archipelago by obtaining returns from China in exchange for sending tribute on a regular basis.

The evil kingdom and Himiko

Eventually, the Later Han Dynasty was destroyed in 220, and the Three Kingdoms Period began in China, with Wei, Wu, and Shu in conflict. During this period, China established the Obihang County on the Korean peninsula, and exchanges with the Japanese were also conducted through Obihang County. According to the “Wei Zhi” biography in “Sanguozhi” (The History of the Three Kingdoms), great wars continued in Japan from the end of the 2nd century, and the various countries fought each other for many years, making it difficult to govern the country. Therefore, the nations established Himiko of Yamatai, who was skilled in witchcraft and spiritual power, as their queen, and peace and order were restored. This union united the 30 or so small states of Japan, centering on Yamatai, and established Himiko as the queen of Japan.

In 239, Himiko sent an envoy to the Wei Dynasty, where the emperor bestowed upon her the title of “King of Oyasama” (親魏倭王). This signified that Himiko was officially recognized as the representative of Japan, and the Emperor of Wei presented her with a gold seal, numerous bronze mirrors, and ceremonial objects along with the title. In addition, Himiko also received a banner and ceremonial documents from Wei, which she used to strengthen her ruling authority in Japan. This shows that Himiko understood the importance of diplomacy and enhanced her own authority through interactions with the Wei.

Himiko lived deep within her residence, which was protected by a watchtower and castle fences, and ruled with a magical authority. Under her rule, there existed a status system of taijin(大人) (those of high status) and geko(下戸) (those of low status), and a taxation system was also in place. There was also a market in Yamatai, and an official called “Ichidaisotsu(一大率)” was placed in Itokoku(伊都国) to serve as a window for diplomacy. Himiko also demonstrated her political skills, and when she was at odds with Kunakoku(狗奴国), she sought to maintain the stability of the country by obtaining support from the Wei Kingdom. In this way, Himiko stabilized relations with other countries under the Chinese system of book-entry with the authority of the Wei Dynasty as her backer.

After Himiko’s death, the male king who succeeded her was unable to rule the country, and civil war broke out again. In the midst of the turmoil, Iyiyo (Taiyo), who belonged to Himiko’s family, was appointed as queen, and the domestic strife was ended. Iyoyo also sent envoys to the Chinese state of Wei and maintained contact with it. However, due to the subsequent turmoil on the Chinese mainland, envoys from Japan ceased at the end of the 3rd century. For about 160 years, no mention of Japan was found in Chinese history books.

Thus, during the Yayoi period, there was a struggle for power among the smaller nations of the Japanese archipelago through exchanges with mainland China, and booklets and titles from China were an important means of supporting the authority of the rulers. Being officially recognized by the emperor of Wei, as Himiko was, was important for domestic governance and relations with other countries.

  • 2024.10.30

Paleolithic Age / The Jomon period

“Evolution and Migration of Early Humans to the Japanese Archipelago”

Humans were born in Africa about 7 million years ago. Later, during the evolutionary process, humans were divided into different species, such as apes, proto-humans, paleo-humans, and newcomers, and tried to survive in various regions. This evolutionary process was complex, and humans repeatedly adapted and changed their appearance in response to climatic and environmental changes on the planet. In particular, the newcomers (Homo sapiens, present humans), who emerged about 200,000 years ago, had many characteristics that differentiated them from other human species. They possessed advanced language skills, used tools, formed societies, and developed cultures.

Newcomers are thought to have arrived in the Japanese archipelago about 40,000 years ago. The migration to the Japanese Islands was the result of a lowering of the sea level at that time, which enabled migration from Africa to Asia and then to the Japanese Islands. In the process, large mammals such as mammoths and Naumann elephants migrated to the Japanese Islands. Then, in pursuit of these animals, newcomers set foot on this land. The history of humans in the Japanese archipelago continues from the Paleolithic Era, which began about 25,000 years ago. This period was divided into the first half and the second half after the huge eruption of the Aira Caldera about 30,000 years ago, which was followed by the Jomon Period.

Fossil human bones found in the Paleolithic period include the Minatogawa people (about 18,000 years ago) and the Hamakita people (about 21,000 to 17,000 years ago), all of which are also known to belong to the Neogene. The roots of these people are confirmed to be those who lived in the southern part of the Asian continent from ancient times and are the ancestors of the Jomon people.

“Development of Jomon Culture: Pottery, Subsistence, and Social Practices in Ancient Japan”

Approximately 11,500 years ago, the Earth’s climate rapidly warmed, resulting in a change in the natural environment to a state similar to the present (Holocene epoch). This warming also brought about a drastic change in vegetation, shifting from coniferous forests to deciduous broad-leaved forests such as beech and oak in eastern Japan, and to broad-leaved forests such as shii and oak in western Japan. The Jomon culture was established to cope with these environmental changes. The Jomon period was characterized by a lifestyle centered on hunting, gathering, and fishing, and the targets of hunting were medium-sized animals such as deer and wild boars.

Earthenware first appeared about 16,500 years ago, and while the early use of earthenware was limited to a small amount, the use of earthenware rapidly increased about 15,000 years ago. Then, about 11,500 years ago, the Jomon culture began in earnest, and the use of earthenware became more active. This enabled people to cook a wide variety of foods, and their diet became richer and broader.

The Jomon people lived a lifestyle that combined hunting, gathering, and fishing, with hunting being done on medium-sized animals. As the climate warmed, plants also changed, and earthenware became indispensable for gathering and cooking hard fruits such as chestnuts, walnuts, horse chestnuts, and acorns. Cooking methods included removing scum and boiling, and the use of earthenware was an essential part of people’s diets. Processing tools such as stone plates and grindstones for grinding nuts into flour were also developed, and efficient use of foodstuffs was promoted.

Fishing was also a thriving activity, and bone horn fishhooks, illusion heads, and clay and stone weights (clay and stone weights) attached to nets were used to catch fish and shellfish. Shellfish, salmon, trout, and other marine products were also important food sources, and these lifestyles continued for more than 10,000 years. Thus, it is clear that the people of the Jomon period adapted to their natural environment and lived a rich dietary life.

The Jomon period lasted more than 10,000 years, during which time the shapes and patterns of earthenware changed. People of the Jomon period lived a sedentary lifestyle and lived in pit dwellings. Particularly in the Early Period, settlements with graves and living quarters built around a central plaza emerged, with ring settlements being a typical example. The formation of settlements caused increased contact with other areas for resources, and materials such as shell ornaments, obsidian, sanukite, jade, and kohaku became widely distributed.

Although the Jomon people did not have writing, they decorated their bodies and materials to give them meaning and information. In particular, body modification, such as the extraction of adult canine and incisor teeth, and the forcible grinding of incisors, functioned as a means of indicating personal origins. Most of the dead were buried in single burials, with reburials increasing after the middle period. The bodies were buried in the bent burial style, and clay figurines in the shape of women and stone poles in the shape of male genitalia were made as tools to express people’s prayers for abundance and fertility.

In the Japanese archipelago during the Paleolithic period, hunting was practiced mainly in pursuit of animals, and small groups of several families or dozens of people moved around. At first, hunting was focused on large mammals, but environmental changes caused large mammals to disappear and medium-sized mammals became the target of hunting. In particular, large pitfalls were found in some areas on the Pacific side of the island, and it is assumed that they caught herds of migrating deer.

The Paleolithic lifestyle has been revealed through excavations at the Iwajuku Site (Gunma Prefecture) and Lake Nojiri Bottom Site (Nagano Prefecture). At the Iwajuku site, stone tools were discovered on a red clay cliff face, proving that people lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Ice Age. In addition, at the Lake Nojiri Bottom Site, fossils of the giant horned deer and Naumann elephant, stone tools, earthenware, and bone tools have been unearthed, which depict in detail the lifestyle and culture of the people of that time.

As the people of the Japanese archipelago moved through the Jomon period and into the Yayoi period, their lives became more diverse. They continued to adapt to their environment while adopting new technologies and cultures. Thus, the ancient history of Japan shows that changes in people’s lifestyles, culture, and social structure, along with geographical and environmental factors, are closely related.

  • 2024.08.11

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